St. Tikhon’s University Review . Series I: Theology. Philosophy. Religious Studies

This article gives a comparative analysis of theological and political views of two most important representatives of the Nicene party at the fi nal stage of the Arian controversy, namely St. Damasus of Rome and St. Gregory the Theologian. The article points out the coincidence of views of the two bishops on the problem of the Antiochian schism, but takes into account the fact that Rome did not acknowledge Gregory as the legitimate bishop of Constantinople because of his violation of the 15th rule of the Council of Nicaea, prohibiting the transfer of bishops from one episcopal chair to another. At the same time, Damasus refrained from direct criticism of St. Gregory, sharply condemning his opponent in the struggle for the Constantinople see, Maximus the Cynic. From the theological point of view, we can clearly see the coincidence of positions and even of the arguments of the two saints as to the christological heresy of Apollinaris, which can easily be explained by the acquaintance of St. Gregory with the decisions of the Roman council (378). In the fi eld of triadology, both bishops demonstrate certain terminological flexibility within the framework of the Nicene tradition, but their interpretations of the Nicene faith diff er in details: for St. Gregory the unity of the Trinity is due to hypostatic properties, namely to the monarchy of Father, whereas St. Damasus concentrates his attention on the possession by the Persons of the Trinity of one Deity which is associated primarily with Father.

Early Christianity, Patristics, St. Gregory the Theologian, St. Damasus of Rome, church councils, the Antiochian schism, Apollinaris, triadology, Arian controversy

1. Ayres L., Nicaea and its Legacy. An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, Oxford, New York, 2004.
2. Beeley Ch. A., “Divine Causality and the Monarchy of God the Father in Gregory of Nazianzus” in: Harvard Theological Review, 100:2, 2007, 199–214.
3. Beeley Ch. A., Gregory of Nazianzus on the Trinity and the Knowledge of God: in your Light we shall see Light, Oxford, 2008.
4. Behr J., Formation of Christian Theology. Vol. II.: The Nicene Faith, Crestwood, 2004, pt. 2.
5. Cavallera F., Le Schisme d'Antioche (IVe–Ve siècle), Paris, 1905.
6. Cross R., “Divine Monarchy in Gregory of Nazianzus” in: Journal of Early Christian Studies, 14:1, 2006, 105–116.
7. Egan J. P., “αἴτιος / ‘Author’, αἰτία / ‘Cause’ and ἀρχή / ‘Origin’: Synonyms in Selected Texts of Gregory Nazianzen” in: Studia Patristica, vol. 32, Leuven, 1997, 102–107.
8. Egan J. P., “Primal Cause and Trinitarian Perichoresis in Gregory Nazianzen's Oration 31” in: Studia Patristica, vol. 27, Leuven, 1993, 21–28.
9. Fokin A. R., Formirovanie trinitarnoj doktriny v latinskoj patristike, Moscow, 2014.
10. Halleux A., de., ““Hypostase” et “personne” dans la formation du dogme trinitaire (ca 375–381)” in: Halleux A., de., Patrologie et Oecuménisme, Leuven, 1990, 113–214.
11. Hanson R. P. C., The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God. The Arian Controversy, 318–381, Grand Rapids, 2005.
12. Jourjon M., “La doctrine des “discours théologiques”” in : Grégoire de Nazianze, Discours 27–31, (SC. 250), Paris, 2008, 29–65.
13. Markschies Ch., “Was ist lateinischer “Neunizänismus”? Ein Vorschlag für eine Antwort” in: Markschies Ch., Alta Trinità beata. Gesammelte Studien zur altkirchlichen Trinitätstheologie, Tübingen, 2000, 238–264.
14. Meyendorff I., prot., Vizantijskoe bogoslovie. Istoricheskie tendencii i doktrinal'nye temy, Minsk, 2007.
15. Moreschini C., I Padri Cappadoci: storia, letteratura, teologia, Roma, 2008.
16. Noble T. A., “Paradox in Gregory Nazianzen’s Doctrine of the Trinity” in: Studia Patristica, vol. 27, Leuven, 1993, 94–99.
17. Reutter U., Damasus, Bischof von Rom (366–384). Leben und Werk, Tübingen, 2009.
18. Simonetti M., “Dal nicenismo al neonicenismo. Rassegna di alcune pubblicazioni recenti” in: Simonetti M., Studi di cristologia postnicena, Roma, 2006, 269–289.
19. Zakharov G. E., “Poslanie Rimskogo sobora Confidimus quidem v kontekste vzaimootnoshenij Cerkvej Zapada i Vostoka v 70-e gg. IV v.” in: Vestnik PSTGU. Seriya II: Istoriya. Istoriya Russkoj Pravoslavnoj Tserkvi, 4(71), 2016, 7–20.
20. Zakharov G. E., “Tema vlasti v latinskom trinitarnom bogoslovii IV v.” in: Zakharov G. E., red., Bozhestvennaya vlast', tserkovnaya ierarhiya i duhovnyj avtoritet v rannekhristianskoj latinskoj traditsii, Moscow, 2016, 4–12.

Zakharov Georgy

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

The article is written within the framework of the project "The relationship of the Eastern and Western Churches in the era of the Arian disputes" supported by supported by St.Tikhon's University Development Foundation

Jacob Moleschott (1822–1893), Karl Vogt (1817–1895) and Ludwig Buchner (1824–1899) are known as most notorious German spokesmen on behalf of “Science” in the mid —19th century. They are labelled in Russian historiography as “vulgar materialists” and are contrasted with dialectical materialists in their attitude to philosophy and science. This article shows how they used scientifi c conceptions of human physiology for the validation of their socio-political views, in particular on the role of religion in society and on the gradual secularisation of society. The article proposes critical reassessment of the category “vulgar materialists”, typical of current Russian historiography. It also aims to demonstrate their attitude to theology, philosophy, science and religion as main categories of their discourse. Finally, the article analyses scientifi c arguments in favour of the evolutionary development of society as well as reasons for the rejection of revolutionary practice. Although both “scientifi c materialism” and “scientifi c naturalism” do not meet the criteria of scientifi c ideology, scientifi c activity promotes secularisation by means of the extrapolation of its results to the social and political spheres.

materialism, science, religion, theology, secularisation, 19th century

1. Beiser F.C. After Hegel German Philosophy: 1840-1900. Princeton, 2014.
2. Brooke J.H. Science and Secularization // The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion. – Cambridge, 2010. P. 103-124.
3. Buchner L. Fiziologicheskie kartiny (Physiological Etudes). Moscow, 1862.
4. Chelpanov G. Psikhologiia i marksizm (Psychology and Marxism) . Moscow, 1924.
5. Clark C., Kaiser W. (ed.) Culture Wars. Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth Century Europe. Cambridge, 2009.
6. Coleman W. Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of form, function and transformation. Cambridge, 1978.
7. Funkenstein A. Theology and Scientific Imagination from the Middle Ages to the Seventeenth Century. Princeton, 1986.
8. Galaty D.H. The Philosophical Basis of Mid-Nineteenth Century German Reductionism // Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 1974. Vol. 29. P. 295-31.
9. Goodday G. 'Nature' in the Laboratory: Domestication and Discipline with the Microscope in Victorian Life Science // The British Journal for the History of Science. 1991. Vol. 24. P. 307-341.
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12. Harrison P. Science and Secularization // Intellectual History Review. 2017. Vol.27. P. 47-70
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14. Holton G. Scientific Optimism and Societal Concerns // The Hastings Center Report. 1975. Vol. 5. pp. 39-47.
15. Iushmanov N.Z. Kritika vul'garnogo materializma i ego sovremennoi interpretatsii. (Critics of vulgar materialism in its modern interpretation) Kiev, 1965.
16. Lenoir T. Strategy of Life. Teleology and Mechanics in Nineteenth Century German Biology. – Dordrecht, London, 1982. P.5
17. Lightman B. Victorian Popularizers of Science: Designing Nature for new Audiences. Chicago, 2007.
18. Marx K., Engels F. Sochineniia (Works). Moscow, 1961.
19. Materialy dlia razoblacheniia materialisticheskogo nigilizma (Materials for exposure of materialistic nihilism). Saint Petersburg, 1864.
20. Meneghello L. Jacob Moleschott and the conception of science in the 19th century. Scientific materialism as “totalizing” worldview. Master Thesis. 2010.
21. Mitchell I. Marxism and German Scientific materialism // Annals of Science. 1978. Vol. 35. P. 379-400.
22. Olson R.G. Science and Scientism in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Chicago, 2008.
23. Ostwald W. Nesostoiatel'nost' nauchnogo materializma (The Failure of Scientific Materialism). Riga, 1895.
24. Rectenwald M. Nineteenth Century British Secularism: Science, Religion and Literature. New-York, 2016.
25. Spencer G. Osnovnye nachala (First Principles). Saint Petersburg, 1897.
26. Timiryazev K. Razvitie estestvoznaniia v Rossii v epokhu 60-kh godov (Development of Natural sciences in the 1860-s). Moscow, 1920.
27. Turner F.M. Contesting Cultural Authority. Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life. Cambridge, 1993.
28. Weir T.H. (ed.) Monism: Science, Philosophy and Religion, the History of a Worldview. Pallgrave MacMillan, 2012.
29. Weir T. Secularism and Religion in Nineteenth-Century Germany. The Rise of the Forth Dimension. – Cambridge, 2016.

Razdyakonov Vladislav

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

This research was conducted with financial support of Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.

In his later writings Russian Slavophile philosopher Ivan V. Kireevsky gives an outline of a positive Christian philosophy. Its prerequisite is the spiritual integrity of the knowing reason that enables one to acquire the adequate cognitive access to the reality as a whole. Spiritual integrity originates in the Eastern historical type, whereas the Western type is marked by the lack of spiritual unity and the dominance of formal reasoning that distort the apprehension of the reality. Spiritual integrity is only possible on the grounds of the Orthodox Christian faith that opens to a human person the genuine communion with God. However, in his own works Ivan V. Kireevsky does not mention any specifically Christian subject (such as original sin and redemption ). Besides that, his typological approach to history and his central philosophical concepts (such as spiritual integrity and faith) display some rather serious shortcomings. Nevertheless, a positive Christian philosophy along the lines of Ivan V. Kireevsky still has a potential for further constructive development, but that would require a careful refinement of its theoretical foundations and central concepts.

I.V. Kireevsky, S.N. Trubetskoy, Hegel, Schelling, the West, Russia, Eastern Christian tradition, German idealism, typological approach, critique of rationalism, integral reason, faith, foundations of philosophy, Christian philosophy

1. Antonov K.M. Filosofiia I.V. Kireevskogo: antropologicheskii aspekt (The philosophy of I.V. Kireevskii: its anthropological aspect). Moscow, 2006.
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3. Bredshou D. Aristotel' na Vostoke i na Zapade. Metafizika i razdelenie khristianskogo mira. M., 2012 (Russian translation of: Bradshaw D. Aristotle East and West: metaphysics and the division of Christendom. New-York, 2004).
4. Gaiser K. Platons ungeschriebene Lehre. Studien zur systematischen und geschichtlichen Begründung der Wissenschaften in der Platonischen Schule. Stuttgart, 1963.
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7. Katasonov V.N. Khristianstvo. Kul'tura. Nauka (Christianity. Culture. Science). Moscow, 2012.
8. Khomiakov A.S. Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh. Tom 1. Raboty po istoriosofii (Writings in 2 vols. Vol. 1. Works in the philosophy of history). Moscow, 1994.
9. Kireevskii I.V. Kritika i estetika (Art critique and aesthetics). Moscow, 1979.
10. Kutschera F., von. Die Idee der Autonomie in der neuzeitlichen Geistesgeschichte. Paderborn, 2016.
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13. Müller E. Russischer Intellekt in europäischer Krise: Ivan V. Kireevskij (1806 – 1856). Köln, Graz, 1966.
14. Patnem Kh. Razum, istina i istoriia. M., 2002 (Russian translation of: Putnam H. Reason, truth and history. New York, 1981).
15. Rose M.C. The Christian Platonism of C.S. Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkien, and Charles Williams, in: D.J. O’Meara. (ed.) Neoplatonism and Christian thought. Albany, 1982. P. 203-212.
16. Trubetskoi S.N. Sochineniia (Writings). Moscow, 1994.
17. Ware K. Scholasticism and Orthodoxy: theological method as a factor in the schism. Eastern Churches Review, vol. 5, p. 16-27.

Bulanenko Maxim, диакон

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

The phenomenon of theological incorrectness is primarily the result of the coexistence of two parallel levels of religious representations constituting a continuum of cognitive complexity. This article presents results of the replication experiment based on the classical study by J. L. Barrett and F. Keil (1996) aimed at diff erentiating levels of implicit anthropomorphic and explicit non-anthropomorphic reasoning about God. The data which were obtained in the experiment and based on the Russian Orthodox sample of Theology students have confi rmed the cross-cultural universality and stability of the phenomenon of theological incorrectness described by J. L. Barrett and now widely accepted in the cognitive religious science. In a real-thinking mode aimed at rapid solutions to problems, complicated and cognitively cumbersome theological concepts do undergo systematic deformation and optimisation and acquire anthropomorphic properties corresponding to our default ontological assumptions. Such a tacit deformation seems to be independent from theological representations and occurs even in the presence of explicitly held non-anthropomorphic concepts of God.

anthropomorphism, religious agents, religious representations, cognitive religious science, psychology of religion, cognitive schemes, cognitive biases

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5. Barrett J.L. Theological correctness: Cognitive constraint and the study of religion // Method & Theory in the Study of Religion. 1999. 11. P. 325–339
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Malevich Tatiana

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

Kolkunova Ksenia

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

Kozhevnikov Denis

The article is written within the framework of the project № 14-18-0377 "Modern Western psychology of religion: adaptation to the Russian context" supported by Russian Science Foundation

The article deals with the concept of European civilization, mainly in informational respect, from the viewpoint of the emergence of information storage and transmission media and the creation of the necessary infrastructure. In this connection the author explains that the notions of European civilization and Western European culture (or the West) are not identical. The well-known trichot-omy “Antiquity – Middle Ages – modern epoch” is not satisfactory; the author introduces the no-tion of the carrier of European civilization. The article considers the historical changes of the carriers of European civilization, beginning from the ancient Greeks down to modernity, when European civilization – the only one in the world – has acquired universal importance due to the creation of corresponding institutions. The first part of the article analyzes the ancient Greeks and Romans, the emergence of Graeco-Roman civilization, the totality of whose cultural achievements has been transmitted to a new nation, that of the Christians, who secured the preservation and development of the Graeco-Roman Christian culture during the 1st millennium A.D. The article’s second part considers the nations that have to a certain degree absorbed the Euro-peanism up to the 15th century, when, thanks to universities and scholarly academies, the initiative in transmitting and developing European civilization passes on predominantly to the peoples of Europe which superseded one another in the course of history (these were principally Italy, France, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Germany and Russia) as well as to the American colonies of Great Brit-ain which gained independence and formed the United States of America. The 19th century saw the creation of necessary conditions for the universal spread of European civilization, accompanied by a crisis in Europe and by gradual rise of the USA as the principal carrier of Europeanism. The third part of the article is devoted to the evolution of the Europeanist institutions and ideas from the First World War and to the end of the cold war epoch; the author assesses the current state of Europeanism which has acquired universal dimensions as well as the prospects of the emergence of new carriers of Europeanism.

Europe, Europeanism, European civilization, informational respect, Western Europe, the West, Greek culture, Graeco-Roman culture, Christianity, national cultures, school, university, scholarly center

1. Le Goff J. Rozhdenie Evropy (The Birth of Europe), Moscow, 2008.
2. Shicalin Yu. A. 1995. “Osevye veka” evropeiskoi istorii (“Central Centuries” of the European History), in Voprosy filosofii, 1995, №6.

Shichalin Yury

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

In this paper the author gives the answer to the position of deacon M. Bulanenko, published in tis volume.

Kireevsky, philosophy, idealism, autonomy, faith, platonism

Antonov Konstantin

*According to ISCED 2011, a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences (D.Sc.) is given to reflect second advanced research qualifications or higher doctorates.

Anatoly Alexeev

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

Nyebolszin Antal Gergely

Chernyi Aleksei, priest

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

Zakharov Georgy

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

Zabaev Ivan

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.

Orekhanov Georgij, archpriest

*According to ISCED 2011, a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences (D.Sc.) is given to reflect second advanced research qualifications or higher doctorates.

Lavrentiev Andrey

*According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Cand.Sc.) belongs to ISCED level 8 — "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar.