St. Tikhon’s University Review . Series I: Theology. Philosophy. Religious Studies

Over the centuries no historical figure attracted so much attention, none has caused so much heated debate and conflicting opinions about Himself as a person of Jesus Christ. Debates began in His lifetime, and they are clearly refl ected in the pages of the Gospels and other New Testament Books. At present the scientific community is the urgent task of demythologizing the New Testament science, because the New Testament science developed under the influence of myths, created by scientists for over two hundred years. One or the other myth first arose in the mind of the researcher or research team, then other scientists picked it up, began analyzing, supplement, develop, challenge. As a result, a myth became the subject of scientific research, not the Gospel text, which was used only as an aid to prove the correctness of the creators of the myth. From the successful solution of this problem depends largely the future direction of New Testament studies. The author refers to some of the main myths of the New Testament science, the release of which will open the prospects for further development of biblical studies.

Jesus Christ, New Testament, Gospel, Gospeller, Christianity, Mark, Luke, Matthew, John, Apostles, Myths, Dogmata, Jews, Community, Bible Studies.

1. Metzger B. Novyj Zavet. Kontekst, formirovanie, soderzhanie (New Testament. Context, Formation, Content), Moscow, 2013.
2. Bauckham R. 1998 “For Whom Were the Gospels Written?”, in Bauckham R. (ed.) The Gospels for All Christians. Rethinking the Gospel Audiences, Grand Rapids, 1998. P. 9–48.
3. Blackburn B. Theios Anēr and the Marcan Miracle Tradition, Tübingen, 1991.
4. Bultmann R. The History of the Synoptic Tradition, Oxford, 1963.
5. Carruth S., Garsky A. Documenta Q. Reconstructions of Q Through Two Centuries of Gospel Research Excerpted, Sorted and Evaluated. Q 11: 2b-4, Leuven, 1996.
6. Carter W. Matthew. Storyteller, Interpreter, Evangelist, Peabody (Massachusetts), 2004.
7. Childs H. The Myth of the Historical Jesus and the Evolution of Consciousness, Atlanta (Georgia), 1988.
8. Conzelmann H. The Theology of St Luke, New York, 1961.
9. Deutsch C. Hidden Wisdom and the Easy Yoke, Sheffield, 1987.
10. Dibelius M. From Tradition to Gospel, New York, 1935.
11. Edwards J. R. The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition, Grand Rapids, 2009.
12. Ehrman B. D. How Jesus Became God. The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee, New York, 2014.
13. Farrer A. M. A Study in St. Mark, Westminster, 1951.
14. Farrer A. M. 1955 “On Dispensing with Q”, in Nineham D. E. (ed.) Studies in the Gospels: Essays in Memory of R. H. Lightfoot, Oxford, 1955, pp. 55–88.
15. Farrer A. M. St. Matthew and St. Mark. Westminster, 1954.
16. Goulder M. D. Luke: A New Paradigm, Sheffield, 1989, vol. 1–2.
17. Hahn F. The Titles of Jesus in Christology, London, 1969.
18. Keener C. H. The Historical Jesus of the Gospels, Grand Rapids, 2009
19. Kloppenborg J. S. Q, the Earliest Gospel. An Introduction to the Original Stories and Sayings by Jesus, Louisville, 2008.
20. Leisegang H. 1950 “Der Gottmensch als Archetypus“, in Eranos Jahrbuch, 1950, vol. 18, pp. 9–45.
21. Linnemann E. Biblical Criticism on Trial: How Scientific is “Scientific Theology”?, Grand Rapids, 1998.
22. Luz U. Studies in Matthew, Grand Rapids, 2005.
23. Mack B. L. The Lost Gospel. The Book of Q and Christian Origins, New York, 1993.
24. Manson W. Jesus the Messiah, London, 1943.
25. Meier J. P. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, New York, 1994, vol. 2.
26. Meier J. P. Matthew, Collegeville (Minnesota), 1990.
27. Meier J. P. The Vision of Matthew: Christ, Church, and Morality in the First Gospel, Eugene (Oregon), 2004.
28. Nolland J. The Gospel of Matthew. A Commentary on the Greek Text, Grand Rapids, 2005.
29. Petersen D. N. The Origins of Mark. The Markan Community in Current Debate, Leiden, 2000.
30. Reicke B. Synoptic Prophecies on the Destruction of Jerusalem, Leiden, 1972.
31. Richardson A. The Miracle Stories in the Gospels, London, 1941.
32. Stanton G. N. A Gospel for a New People. Studies in Matthew, Edinburgh, 1992.
33. Stendahl K. The School of Matthew and Its Use of the Old Testament, Uppsala, 1954.
34. Taylor V. The Formation of the Gospel Tradition, London, 1935.
35. Thompson M. 1998 “The Holy Internet”, in Bauckham R. (ed.) The Gospels for All Christians. Rethinking the Gospel Audiences, Grand Rapids, 1998, pp. 49–70.
36. Thompson W. G. Matthew’s Advice to a Divided Community. Mt. 17:22–18:35, Rome, 1970.
37. Tuckett Ch. M. Q and the History of Early Christianity. Studies on Q, London; New York, 1996.
38. Turner D. L. Matthew, Grand Rapids, 2008.
39. Viviano B. T. What Are They Saying about Q?, New York, 2013.
40. Weinreich O. 1926 “Antikes Gottmenschentum“, in Neues Jahrbuch für Wissenschaft und Jugendbildung, 1926, vol. 2, pp. 633–651.

Metropolitan of Volokolamsk Hilarion (Alfeev G.)

The article explores various arguments of contemporary Protestant Bible scholars who criticize the traditional Protestant teaching of atonement known as penal substitution theory. The author examines the scholars that may not be familiar to the Russian theological world, such as C. Marshall, C. H. Dodd, T. Lane, S. Travis, J. Green, M. Baker, C. Gunton and others. The author demonstrates how the contemporary biblical scholarship sheds new light on key notions for Protestant understanding of atonement, such as righteousness/justice, propitiation, God’s wrath, sin, and punishment. The main contemporary criticism makes it clear that the supporters of the penal substitution theory have read into these notions the meanings that are typical to the Western legal system but not for Jewish tradition nor culture that framed the context for authors of biblical texts. Besides, the article examines the metaphorical nature of the biblical language. Contemporary researchers argue that the New Testament authors, when speaking of atonement, use at least fi ve groups of metaphors drawing on various aspects of life in the ancient world: the court of law, commercial dealings, worship, the battleground, and personal relationships. The nature of metaphor means that the interpreters deal with mediated description of the mystery of the atonement that rules out literal understanding of the imagery used. Moreover, this variety of metaphors allows for a multifaceted approach to interpreting the meaning of the death of Christ and fi nding various real-life applications of theological truths pertaining to the atonement. When this imagery is understood solely through the lens of legal metaphors, they lose their own voice and become a part of a theory that claims to provide a comprehensive explanation of the meaning of the death of Christ. This theory centers on the legal understanding of the relationship between God and man, which complicates the application of atonement teaching in different contexts. The author provides arguments that demonstrate the need to seriously revisit the key points of penal substitution theory.

atonement, penal substitution theory, righteousness, justice, propitiation, God’s wrath, sin, retributive justice, punishment, metaphor.

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2. Kozlov M. Uchenie ob iskuplenii v russkoi bogoslovskoi mysli XIX–XX vv. // Iskuplenie. Pravoslavnaia entsiklopediia. M., 2010. T. 24. S. 304–311.
3. Pierard R. Evangel'skoe khristianstvo (Evangelicalism) // Teologicheskii entsiklopedicheskii slovar' / U. Elvell. red. M., 2003. S. 430–433.
4. Pilipenko E. Iskuplenie v katolicheskom bogoslovii // Iskuplenie. Pravoslavnaia entsiklopediia. M., 2010. T. 24. S. 297–300.
5. Rattsinger I. Vvedenie v khristianstvo: Lektsii ob Apostol'skom simvole very. Briussel', 1988.
6. Tarasii (Kurganskii), ierom. Perelom v drevnerusskom bogoslovii. Varshava, 1927.
7. Florovskii G. Puti russkogo bogosloviia. Minsk, 2006
8. Aulén G. Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of Atonement. Eugene, 2003.
9. Baker M. D. Proclaiming the Scandal of the Cross: Contemporary Images of the Atonement. Grand Rapids, 2006.
10. Baker M. D. Which Courtroom and What Narrative Shapes Your Atonement Theology? // Direction. 2012. Vol. 41. No. 1. P. 97–110.
11. Baker M. D., Green J. B. Recovering the Scandal of the Cross: Atonement in New Testament & Contemporary Contexts. Downers Grove, 2011.
12. Barbour I. Myths, Models and Paradigms: A Comparative Study in Science and Religion. N. Y., 1976.
13. Bell D. M. Deliberating: Justice and Liberation // The Blackwell Companion to Christian Ethics / S. Hauerwas, S. Wells, eds. Malden, 2004. P. 182–195.
14. Belousek D. W. S. Atonement, Justice, and Peace: The Message of the Cross and the Mission of the Church. Grand Rapids, 2011.
15. Blocher H. Biblical Metaphors and the Doctrine of the Atonement // Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 2004. Vol. 47. No. 4. P. 629–645.
16. Boersma H. Violence, Hospitality, and the Cross: Reappropriating the Atonement Tradition. Grand Rapids, 2006.
17. Boyd R. Metaphor and Theory Change: What is “Metaphor” a Metaphor For? // Metaphor and Thought / A. Ortony, ed. Cambridge, 1993. P. 481–532.
18. Brauch M. T. 1977 “Perspectives on “God’s righteousness” in Recent German Discussion”, in Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion, Philadelphia, 1977, pp. 523–542.
19. Brümmer V. The Model of Love: A Study in Philosophical Theology, Cambridge; New York, 1993.
20. Carroll J. T., Green J. B., Voorst R. E. Van, Marcus J., Senior D. The Death of Jesus in Early Christianity, Colorado Springs, 1995.
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22. Dodd C. H. The Epistle to the Romans, New York, 1932.
23. Dodd C. H. 1957 “Atonement”, in The Bible and the Greeks, London, 1957, pp. 82–95.
24. Driver J. Understanding the Atonement for the Mission of the Church, Scottdale, 1986.
25. Dunn J. D. G. The Theology of Paul the Apostle, Grand Rapids, 2006.
26. Green J. 2009 “Kaleidoscopic View”, in Beilby J. K., Eddy P. R. (eds.) Nature of the Atonement, Downers Grove, 2009, pp. 157–185.
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28. Grensted L. W. A Short History of the Doctrine of the Atonement, Manchester, 1920.
29. Gunton C. E. The Actuality of Atonement: A Study of Metaphor, Rationality, and the Christian Tradition, London, 2003.
30. Jeffery S., Ovey M., Sach A. Pierced for Our Transgressions: Rediscovering the Glory of Penal Substitution, Wheaton, 2007.
31. Jersak B. 2007 “Nonviolent Identification and the Victory of Christ”, in Jersak B., Hardin M. (eds.) Stricken by God?: Nonviolent Identifi cation and the Victory of Christ, Grand Rapids, 2007, pp. 18–53.
32. Lane T. 2001 “The Wrath of God as an Aspect of the Love of God”, in Vanhoozer K. J. (ed.) Nothing Better, Nothing Greater: Theological Essays on the Love of God, Cambridge, 2001, pp. 138–167.
33. MacIntyre J. The Shape of Soteriology: Studies in the Doctrine of the Death of Christ, Edinburgh, 1995.
34. Marshall C.D. Beyond Retribution: A New Testament Vision for Justice, Crime, and Punishment, Grand Rapids, 2001.
35. McFague S. Metaphorical Theology: Models of God in Religious Language, Philadelphia, 1982.
36. McGrath A. E. Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification, Cambridge, 2005.
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43. Schreiner T. R. 2009 “Penal Substitution View”, in The Nature of the Atonement: Four Views, Downers Grove, 2009, pp. 67–98.
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Koryakin Sergei

This paper is devoted to the description and analysis of C. A. Eschenmayer’s philosophy of faith and of his discussion with F. W. J. Schelling. The author exposes the main ideas of Eschenmayer’s important work «Philosophy In Its Transition To The Non-Philosophy» (1803) in which he criticizes Schelling’s philosophy of the absolute identity pointing out the vagueness of the origin of multitude from the all-unity. At the material of Schelling’s answer («Philosophy and Religion», 1804) the author shows how Schelling begins to change his theoretical point of view. The world now is falling away from God. The paper deals also with their discussion of 1810–1812 around Schelling’s philosophy of liberty. Here Eschenmayer’s theology becomes completely apophatic. Owing to his incomprehension of the Schelling’s thought of those times and to his fi deism, his contradictions with Schelling become irreconciliable. But the both philosophers maintain friendly relations, it isn’t a case of Jacobi-Schelling controversy. Conclusions that may be drawn from the paper are following: (1) the philosophy of Eschenmayer is a particular case of the philosophy of feeling and faith which has a concrete historical nature. (2) The late «positive» Schelling’s philosophy can be considered as a successful «third way» between the unsteady rationalism and the theoretical deadlock of fi deism.

Eschenmayer, Schelling, German idealism, faith, philosophical theology, discussion, apophatism, philosophy of nature, philosophy of liberty, all-unity, fi deism, rationalism.

1. Chernov S. A., Shevchenko I. V. Fridrih Jakobi: vera, chuvstvo, razum (Friedrich Jacobi: Faith, Sense, Reason), Moscow, 2010.
2. Augusto R. 2007 “La polémica epistolar entre Schelling y Eschenmayer”, in Anuario Filosófico, Navarra, 2007, vol. 40/3, pp. 623–645.
3. Jantzen J. 1994 “Eschenmayer und Schelling. Die Philosophie in ihrem Übergang zur Nichtphilosophie“, in Jaeschke W. (ed.) Religionsphilosophie und spekulative Theologie. Der Streit um die Göttlichen Dinge (1799–1812), Hamburg, 1994, pp. 74–97.
4. Wuttke W. 1972 “Materialien zu Leben und Werk Adolph Karl August von Eschenmayers“, in Sudhoffs Archiv, 1972, vol. 56, pp. 255–296.

Zolotukhin Vsevolod

The author aims to analyze the correctness of the widespread definition of the socioeconomic worldview of Sergey Nikolaevich Bulgakov (1871–1944) as «socialistic». With this purpose, the author outlines Bulgakov’s socio-economic theory of the fi rst decade of the twentieth century — the period of his most evident «socialistic» statements. The author analyzes both his economic and political views in connection with socialist teachings as well as his sociological understanding of the roles of state and society. The study shows that during this period, Bulgakov, mainly working from the idea of civil society as an active counterweight to the state, establishes his notion of «Christian community» or «Church community», functioning as a religiously and personally motivated open space for the formation of public opinion, as the sociological concept of civil society. Special attention is given to an analysis of Bulgakov’s hierarchical theory of values which, from the philosophical and theoretical points of view, ensures openness and non-dogmatism in the «Church community» as the place of nurture of social ideals, in the author’s opinion. As a result, it is concluded that Bulgakov’s socio-economic theory of the period went beyond the paradigm of socialism especially in its sociopolitical aspects and retains its relevance to the present day.

S. N. Bulgakov, Christianity, Christian socialism, Christian community, Church, social ideals, socialism, self-governance, bureaucracy, philosophy of economy, regulative principles.

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Horie Khiroiuki

«New religious movements and society» is traditionally one of the most sophisticated topics in the area of new religions studies. Its problem field is so huge that up to now by far not all important research themes where even touched by scientists from all over the world. The problem of the process of the identification of sectarianism by diff erent societal institutions is one of such untouched themes that is taken as the main subject of this article. This process by itself is an inseparable part of the every societal deliberate reaction to the very existence of unconventional religiosity, its unstructured and mainly structured types. The focal point of the article is step-by-step analysis of the general structure elements of the process of the identification of sectarianism without any reference to the specific time and place of its flow. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the subjects of the identification of sectarianism, to the criteria for religious groups to be qualified as new religious movements, and to the specific features of the process of documents filtration. The causes of selective perception of sectarianism are disclosed. Some main consequences and unpredictable outcomes of the process of the identification of sectarianism are described.

identification of sectarianism, unconventional religiosity, new religious movements, intentionality of cult studies, borderlines of unconventional religiosity, cults and society.

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Martinovich Vladimir

The main tendencies in evolution of Protestantism, taking into account variety of its currents are analyzed: an individualization of personal religious experience, high intensity of religious life, an actual inclusiveness in life of community of believers, strengthening of mystical orientation of cult practice. Factors of increase in missionary potential of Protestantism are defined. The concept of religious communication as two-way communication between the person and God on the example of praying practices of the Russian Pentecostals in communities of classical and new Pentecostals of the Urals, Tyumen district and Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug-Yugra is specified. The main vectors of religious communication are defined. The ratio of prayers, readings the Bible and glorification is established. Specifics of Pentecostal prayers, taking into account existence appellative (prayers about healing and blessings) and explicative (a prayer in languages, a glossolaliya) parts are marked out. Classification praying practices in forms (individual and collective) and to types is made (general/abstract or target). Specifi cs and a ratio of individual and collective prayers are especially analyzed. The special attention is paid to a glossolaliya as a peculiar feature of the Pentecostal movement, both classical, and a charismatic version. Rate of pronouncing prayers of a different target orientation is investigated. Basic formulas for prayers of blessings and gratitude are defi ned. Specifi c character of a prayer about healing in the Pentecostal environment is marked out. The role of the mystical address to God as unique emotion for this type of the communication giving the chance of personal contact with the sacral is considered. It is noted that participation in prayful practicians carries out the adapting function, realizing need of the believer for implementation of religious experience within community of believers, and compensatory, liquidating a condition of psychological discomfort.

Protestantism, Evolution of Religion, Modern Protestantism, Pentecostals, Charismatic Churches, Prayer, Classification of Prayers, Religious Communication, Glossolalia.

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6. D'jachkova N. A. 2013 “Religioznyj i svetskij diskurs: Problemy kommunikacii” (Religious and Secular Discourse: Communication Problems), in Vestnik Cheljabinskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 2013. № 37 (328). S. 34–36.
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Klyueva Vera